2nd Euro-Global Summit on Advances in Clinical and Cellular Immunology

Autoimmunity

Autoimmunity refers to the state where an individual's immune system attacks its own body's tissues, mistaking them for foreign invaders. This can lead to the development of autoimmune diseases, in which the immune system attacks specific organs or tissues, resulting in damage and dysfunction. Examples of autoimmune diseases include rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, and Crohn's disease.

The exact causes of autoimmunity are not fully understood, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Some studies suggest that infections, exposure to certain chemicals, and certain medications may trigger autoimmunity in susceptible individuals.

There is currently no cure for autoimmune diseases, but treatments are available to help manage symptoms and slow disease progression. These treatments may include medications to suppress the immune system, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs). Lifestyle changes, such as a healthy diet and regular exercise, may also be recommended to help manage symptoms and improve overall health.

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Immune Mechanisms

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system has two main mechanisms: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.

Innate Immune System:
The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against invading pathogens. It includes physical barriers such as skin and mucous membranes, as well as cellular components such as neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. These cells can recognize and destroy pathogens through a variety of mechanisms, such as phagocytosis and the release of antimicrobial chemicals.

Adaptive Immune System:
The adaptive immune system is a more specialized and specific defense mechanism. It involves the production of antibodies and the activation of T cells and B cells, which are highly specific to particular pathogens. When a pathogen enters the body, specialized cells in the immune system, called antigen-presenting cells, present parts of the pathogen to T cells and B cells. This triggers the production of antibodies that specifically target the invading pathogen. The adaptive immune system also has memory, allowing the body to recognize and mount a more rapid and effective response to previously encountered pathogens.

Both the innate and adaptive immune systems work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens. When the immune system fails to function properly, it can result in immune system disorders such as autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies, and allergies.

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Cancer Immunology and Immunotherapy

Cancer immunology is the study of the immune system's response to cancer. It seeks to understand how cancer cells evade the immune system, how the immune system can be activated to recognize and attack cancer cells, and how the immune system can be harnessed to develop effective cancer treatments.

Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses the body's own immune system to fight cancer. There are several different types of immunotherapy, including checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cell therapy, and cancer vaccines.

Checkpoint inhibitors work by blocking the signals that cancer cells use to evade detection by the immune system, allowing the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells.

CAR-T cell therapy involves genetically modifying a patient's own T cells to recognize and attack cancer cells. The modified T cells are then reinfused into the patient, where they can target and destroy cancer cells.

Cancer vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. Some cancer vaccines contain cancer-specific antigens that can be recognized by the immune system, while others work by stimulating the immune system in more general ways.

Immunotherapy has shown promise in the treatment of many different types of cancer, including melanoma, lung cancer, and leukemia. However, it is not effective for all patients, and research is ongoing to improve its effectiveness and identify new targets for immunotherapy.

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Epidemiology

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations. Epidemiologists use a variety of methods to study disease patterns, including observational studies, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses.

One of the primary goals of epidemiology is to identify risk factors for disease. Risk factors can include genetic factors, environmental exposures, lifestyle factors, and social determinants of health such as income, education, and access to healthcare. By identifying risk factors for disease, epidemiologists can develop strategies to prevent or mitigate the impact of disease on populations.

Epidemiology is also used to track the spread of infectious diseases and to develop strategies for disease control and prevention. This can include monitoring disease outbreaks, identifying the source of an outbreak, and implementing measures to limit the spread of disease, such as vaccination programs and quarantine measures.

In addition, epidemiology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions designed to improve public health. This can include evaluating the effectiveness of medications, public health campaigns, and other interventions aimed at reducing the burden of disease.

Overall, epidemiology plays a critical role in understanding the factors that contribute to the development and spread of disease, and in developing strategies to improve public health and prevent disease.

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Immune System

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system has two main mechanisms: the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system.

Innate Immune System:
The innate immune system is the body's first line of defense against invading pathogens. It includes physical barriers such as skin and mucous membranes, as well as cellular components such as neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. These cells can recognize and destroy pathogens through a variety of mechanisms, such as phagocytosis and the release of antimicrobial chemicals.

Adaptive Immune System:
The adaptive immune system is a more specialized and specific defense mechanism. It involves the production of antibodies and the activation of T cells and B cells, which are highly specific to particular pathogens. When a pathogen enters the body, specialized cells in the immune system, called antigen-presenting cells, present parts of the pathogen to T cells and B cells. This triggers the production of antibodies that specifically target the invading pathogen. The adaptive immune system also has memory, allowing the body to recognize and mount a more rapid and effective response to previously encountered pathogens.

Both the innate and adaptive immune systems work together to protect the body from harmful pathogens. When the immune system fails to function properly, it can result in immune system disorders such as autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies, and allergies.

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Immunodeficiency

Immunodeficiency refers to a weakened or impaired immune system that makes an individual more susceptible to infections and certain diseases. Immunodeficiency disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic defects, medication use, and certain medical conditions.

Primary immunodeficiency disorders are genetic disorders that affect the development or function of the immune system. Examples of primary immunodeficiency disorders include X-linked agammaglobulinemia, common variable immunodeficiency, and severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

Secondary immunodeficiency disorders are acquired and can be caused by a variety of factors, such as viral infections, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and certain medications, such as corticosteroids.

Individuals with immunodeficiency disorders may experience frequent or severe infections, delayed recovery from infections, and infections caused by opportunistic pathogens that do not typically cause disease in people with a healthy immune system. Treatment for immunodeficiency disorders varies depending on the underlying cause and may include medications, immunoglobulin replacement therapy, and bone marrow or stem cell transplants.

It is important for individuals with immunodeficiency disorders to take steps to reduce their risk of infection, such as practicing good hand hygiene, avoiding contact with sick individuals, and staying up to date on vaccinations.

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Immunogenetics

Immunogenetics is the study of the genetic basis of the immune system, including the genes that encode the molecules and receptors involved in immune function. The immune system is highly complex, and its effectiveness depends on the coordinated activity of a large number of genes.

Immunogenetics focuses on understanding how genetic variation can affect immune function, susceptibility to infectious diseases, and the development of autoimmune disorders. Genetic variation can affect the expression, function, and regulation of immune-related genes, and can contribute to differences in immune response between individuals.

One of the most important areas of research in immunogenetics is the study of human leukocyte antigens (HLAs), which are proteins that are important for immune recognition and activation. The genes that encode HLAs are highly variable between individuals, and differences in HLA genes can affect the ability of the immune system to recognize and respond to foreign antigens.

Immunogenetics also plays a key role in the development of personalized medicine approaches to treating diseases. By understanding an individual's genetic makeup, doctors can tailor treatment plans to their specific needs, taking into account factors such as drug metabolism and immune response.

Overall, immunogenetics is a critical field of study for understanding the genetic basis of immune function and disease, and for developing new approaches to personalized medicine and disease prevention.

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Immunoinformatics

Immunoinformatics is a field of research that applies computational methods and bioinformatics tools to study the immune system and its interactions with pathogens or foreign substances. It involves the use of various computational techniques to analyze and interpret large amounts of data related to immunological processes.

The goal of immunoinformatics is to improve our understanding of how the immune system works and to develop new methods for designing vaccines, immunotherapies, and other treatments for immune-related disorders. Immunoinformatics approaches can help researchers identify potential targets for vaccines and therapies, predict the effectiveness of different treatments, and design new drugs that can interact with the immune system in specific ways.

Some of the techniques used in immunoinformatics include:

Sequence analysis: Using bioinformatics tools to analyze and compare sequences of genes, proteins, and other molecules involved in immune function.

Structural biology: Using computational methods to predict the three-dimensional structure of proteins and other molecules involved in immune function, which can provide insights into how they interact with other molecules.

Machine learning: Using algorithms to identify patterns in large datasets of immunological data, such as gene expression data or protein-protein interaction networks.

Immunoinformatics databases: Databases that contain large amounts of immunological data, such as sequences of antigens, immune receptors, and other molecules.

Overall, immunoinformatics is an important tool for accelerating the development of new treatments and therapies for immune-related disorders, including cancer, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases.

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Immunological Techniques

Immunological techniques are a diverse range of laboratory methods used to study the immune system and its interactions with foreign substances, such as pathogens or drugs. Some common immunological techniques include:

ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay): This is a widely used technique that measures the amount of a specific antibody or antigen in a sample. It involves immobilizing one of the molecules (antibody or antigen) on a surface, and then detecting the other molecule by using an enzyme-linked antibody that produces a color change.

Flow cytometry: This technique allows the simultaneous analysis of multiple parameters of individual cells in a fluid suspension. It involves labeling cells with fluorescently conjugated antibodies specific to different cell surface markers and passing the cells through a laser beam, which excites the fluorescent labels and allows for their detection and analysis.

Western blotting: This technique is used to detect the presence of specific proteins in a sample. It involves separating proteins by gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and then using specific antibodies to detect the protein of interest.

Immunohistochemistry: This technique involves using antibodies to detect specific proteins in tissue samples. It involves incubating tissue sections with a primary antibody specific for the protein of interest, followed by detection with a secondary antibody conjugated to a label such as fluorescent or enzymatic detection.

Neutralization assays: These assays measure the ability of antibodies or other molecules to neutralize the activity of a pathogen or toxin. They can be used to determine the effectiveness of vaccines or therapeutic antibodies.

Immune cell isolation: These techniques are used to isolate specific immune cells from blood or tissue samples for further analysis or manipulation. This can include techniques such as magnetic bead separation or density gradient centrifugation.

Overall, immunological techniques are critical tools for studying the immune system and developing new therapies and treatments for immune-related disorders.

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Immunology

Immunology is the branch of biology that studies the immune system, which is the body's defense against infectious diseases and foreign substances. The immune system is made up of various cells, tissues, and organs that work together to recognize and eliminate pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites, as well as abnormal cells, such as cancer cells.

Immunology is a broad field that encompasses a range of topics, including:

Innate immunity: This is the first line of defense against pathogens, and involves the rapid recognition and elimination of foreign substances by cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells.

Adaptive immunity: This is a more specific response to pathogens, involving the production of antibodies and the activation of T cells and B cells that recognize and eliminate specific pathogens.

Immunological memory: This is the ability of the immune system to remember and respond more quickly and effectively to pathogens that have been encountered before.

Immunodeficiency: This refers to conditions in which the immune system is unable to function properly, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and other diseases.

Autoimmunity: This is a condition in which the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues, leading to autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.

Immunotherapy: This involves using the immune system to treat diseases such as cancer and autoimmune disorders, by boosting or modulating the immune response.

Overall, immunology plays a critical role in understanding the mechanisms of the immune system and developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases.

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Immunology of Infectious Diseases

The immune system plays a crucial role in protecting the body from infectious diseases. It is responsible for identifying and destroying invading pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Here is a brief overview of the immunology of infectious diseases:

Innate Immune Response: The first line of defense against invading pathogens is the innate immune system. This non-specific immune response includes physical barriers such as skin and mucous membranes, as well as immune cells such as neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells. These cells recognize and destroy pathogens through mechanisms such as phagocytosis and release of antimicrobial peptides.

Adaptive Immune Response: The adaptive immune response is a specific response that is tailored to the invading pathogen. It involves the activation of T and B lymphocytes, which recognize and target specific pathogens through the use of antibodies and cell-mediated responses. The adaptive immune response also includes the development of immunological memory, which allows for a rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen.

Immunopathology: In some cases, the immune response to an infectious agent can be harmful to the host. This can occur when the immune system overreacts, leading to tissue damage and disease. Examples include autoimmune diseases, allergic reactions, and immunodeficiency disorders.

Vaccines: Vaccines are a key tool in preventing infectious diseases. They work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and respond to specific pathogens, without causing disease. This results in the development of immunological memory, which provides long-term protection against future infections.

In conclusion, a functional immune system is essential for protection against infectious diseases. Understanding the immunology of infectious diseases is critical for the development of effective treatments and prevention strategies.

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Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses the body's immune system to fight cancer. The immune system is responsible for identifying and destroying abnormal cells in the body, including cancer cells. Immunotherapy works by stimulating the immune system to attack cancer cells more effectively or by introducing engineered immune cells that can recognize and kill cancer cells.

There are several types of immunotherapy, including checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T cell therapy, cancer vaccines, and immune system modulators. Checkpoint inhibitors work by blocking the proteins that cancer cells use to evade detection by the immune system, while CAR-T cell therapy involves genetically modifying a patient's own immune cells to specifically target and destroy cancer cells. Cancer vaccines work by introducing a small piece of the cancer cell to the immune system, training it to recognize and attack cancer cells, and immune system modulators help to enhance the overall immune response.

Immunotherapy has shown promising results in the treatment of various types of cancer, including melanoma, lung cancer, and bladder cancer, among others. However, like all cancer treatments, it may not work for everyone and can cause side effects. It's important to talk to your doctor about whether immunotherapy is right for you and what potential risks and benefits may be involved.

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Immunotoxicology

Immunotoxicology is the study of how toxic substances affect the immune system, which is responsible for protecting the body against infections and diseases. It is a branch of toxicology that focuses on the adverse effects of chemical, physical, and biological agents on the immune system. 

Immunotoxicity can result in increased susceptibility to infections, autoimmune diseases, and allergies. Immune system dysfunction can occur through a variety of mechanisms, including direct toxicity to immune cells, alteration of cytokine production, and interference with lymphoid organ development. 

Immunotoxicology is important in evaluating the safety of drugs, food additives, environmental pollutants, and other substances that humans may be exposed to. It helps to identify potential hazards and to establish safe exposure levels. Immunotoxicity testing is an essential component of the safety evaluation process for many chemicals and pharmaceuticals.

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Neuroimmunology

Neuroimmunology is a branch of science that studies the interactions between the nervous system and the immune system. It investigates the mechanisms by which the immune system influences the functioning of the nervous system and vice versa.

One of the main areas of interest in neuroimmunology is the study of the immune system's role in neurological diseases. Researchers in this field are working to understand how the immune system contributes to the development and progression of diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.

Another area of study in neuroimmunology is the relationship between stress and immune function. Research has shown that chronic stress can have a negative impact on the immune system, which can in turn affect the functioning of the nervous system.

Neuroimmunology also examines the role of inflammation in the nervous system. Inflammation is a complex process that involves the activation of immune cells and the release of various signaling molecules. Chronic inflammation has been linked to a number of neurological diseases, and researchers are working to understand how inflammation can be controlled to improve outcomes for patients.

Overall, neuroimmunology is a rapidly growing field that holds great promise for improving our understanding of neurological diseases and developing new treatments to improve patient outcomes.

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Parasite Immunology

Parasite immunology is the study of the interactions between parasitic organisms and their host immune system. Parasites are organisms that live on or within a host organism, and many of them have evolved complex mechanisms to evade or suppress the host's immune response in order to establish a long-term infection.

The host's immune system has evolved a variety of strategies to detect and eliminate parasitic infections, including the production of antibodies and the activation of various immune cells. However, parasites have evolved numerous ways to evade or suppress these immune responses, including antigenic variation, immune mimicry, modulation of host cytokines, and the induction of regulatory T cells.

The study of parasite immunology has important implications for the development of vaccines and therapies against parasitic infections. Researchers in this field aim to understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie parasite-host interactions, and to identify new targets for intervention in order to prevent or treat parasitic diseases.

Examples of parasitic infections that have been studied in the context of immunology include malaria, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and helminth infections such as hookworm and roundworm infections.

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Pediatric Immunology

Pediatric immunology is a field of medicine that focuses on the immune system of children, including how it develops, functions, and responds to various pathogens and vaccines. The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect the body from infections and diseases. 

Pediatric immunologists are specially trained physicians who diagnose and treat disorders related to the immune system in children, including autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies, and allergic disorders. They work closely with other healthcare professionals, such as allergists, pulmonologists, and rheumatologists, to provide comprehensive care for their patients.

Some common conditions that pediatric immunologists may diagnose and treat include asthma, allergies, eczema, primary immunodeficiency diseases, and autoimmune disorders such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis and lupus. They may also work with children who have received organ transplants and require immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection.

Pediatric immunologists also play an important role in vaccination programs, ensuring that children receive the appropriate vaccines at the recommended ages to protect them from infectious diseases. They may also conduct research to better understand the immune system and develop new treatments for immune-related disorders in children.

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Reproductive Immunology

Reproductive immunology is a field of study that examines the interactions between the immune system and reproductive processes. It explores how the immune system influences fertility, pregnancy, and the health of the mother and baby. 

The immune system plays an essential role in protecting the body against infections and foreign substances. However, during pregnancy, the immune system must also tolerate the developing fetus, which has a different set of genetic material from the mother. The maternal immune system has to balance between protecting the fetus from harm while still being able to fight off potential threats to the mother's health.

Reproductive immunologists study how immune cells, cytokines, and other immune-related factors influence reproductive outcomes. They investigate how immune system imbalances or dysfunctions can lead to infertility, recurrent miscarriage, preterm birth, preeclampsia, and other pregnancy complications.

Reproductive immunology research also examines the potential use of immunomodulatory therapies, such as intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), to treat infertility and pregnancy complications. These treatments aim to regulate the immune system and improve reproductive outcomes.

Overall, reproductive immunology is an important area of research that seeks to improve our understanding of how the immune system and reproductive processes interact, ultimately leading to better reproductive health outcomes for women and their babies.

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Transplantation Immunology

Transplantation immunology is a branch of immunology that deals with the study of the immune response to transplanted tissues or organs. The success of organ transplantation depends on the ability of the transplanted organ or tissue to avoid rejection by the recipient's immune system. The immune response to a transplanted organ or tissue can be either humoral or cellular.

Humoral immunity involves the production of antibodies by B-cells, which can bind to the donor organ or tissue and activate complement, leading to tissue destruction. Cellular immunity, on the other hand, involves the activation of T-cells, which can recognize and attack foreign antigens on the transplanted tissue. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of the immune response to transplantation is crucial to developing strategies to prevent or minimize rejection.

Immunosuppressive drugs are currently used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs or tissues. These drugs suppress the recipient's immune response, but they also increase the risk of infection and cancer. Therefore, the development of new and more targeted immunosuppressive therapies is an area of active research in transplantation immunology.

In addition to preventing rejection, transplantation immunology also aims to promote tolerance to transplanted organs or tissues. This involves inducing a state of immune tolerance in the recipient, where the immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as "self" and does not attack it. The induction of immune tolerance is an important area of research in transplantation immunology, as it would eliminate the need for long-term immunosuppression and improve the success rate of organ transplantation.

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Tumor Immunology

Tumor immunology is a field of study that explores the interaction between the immune system and cancer cells. Cancer cells can evade the immune system by various mechanisms, including downregulating the expression of antigens, producing immunosuppressive cytokines, and inducing T cell exhaustion.

Immunotherapy is an emerging treatment strategy for cancer that aims to activate the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. There are several types of immunotherapy, including checkpoint inhibitors, cancer vaccines, adoptive cell therapy, and oncolytic viruses.

Checkpoint inhibitors are drugs that block the inhibitory signals of immune checkpoint molecules, such as programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), to restore the function of T cells. Cancer vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells by presenting cancer-specific antigens. Adoptive cell therapy involves the infusion of immune cells, such as tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, that are engineered to recognize and kill cancer cells. Oncolytic viruses are viruses that can selectively replicate in cancer cells and induce an immune response against cancer cells.

Tumor immunology is a rapidly evolving field, and ongoing research is focused on improving the efficacy and safety of immunotherapy for cancer treatment.

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Viral Immunology

Viral immunology is the study of how the immune system responds to viral infections. It involves understanding the mechanisms by which viruses infect host cells, how the immune system recognizes and responds to viral infections, and how the immune response can protect the host from viral diseases.

When a virus infects a host, it can trigger a variety of immune responses, including the production of antibodies, activation of T cells, and the release of cytokines. The specific immune response depends on the type of virus, the route of infection, and the host's immune status.

The immune response to a viral infection involves several stages, including:

Recognition: The immune system recognizes viral components, such as viral proteins or nucleic acids, as foreign.

Activation: Immune cells, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells, are activated and begin to produce cytokines and chemokines.

Effector response: Cytotoxic T cells and B cells are activated and produce antibodies that can neutralize the virus.

Memory response: After the infection is cleared, memory T and B cells are generated that can provide long-term protection against future infections.

Research in viral immunology has led to the development of vaccines and antiviral therapies that can prevent or treat viral infections. For example, vaccines can stimulate the immune system to produce a protective immune response, while antiviral therapies can target viral components or processes to inhibit viral replication.

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Antigen Processing and Presentation

Antigens must be processed and given to immune cells in order to activate the essential features of adaptive immunity (specificity, memory, diversity, and self/nonself discrimination). MHC class I and class II molecules on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and other cells regulate antigen presentation. 

MHC class I and class II molecules work similarly: they deliver short peptides to the cell surface, where they are recognised by CD8+ (cytotoxic) and CD4+ (helper) T cells, respectively. The difference is that MHC class I peptides are endogenous, or intracellular, whereas MHC class II peptides are external, or extracellular. Exogenous antigens can also be presented by MHC class I molecules in a process known as cross-presentation. When endogenous antigens are degraded by autophagy, they can also be presented by MHC class II. 

MHC class I presentation: 
All nucleated cells express MHC class I molecules. MHC class I molecules are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and are made up of two chains: a polymorphic heavy chain and a 2-microglobulin chain. Prior to interaction with the 2-microglobulin, the heavy chain is stabilised by the chaperone calnexin. These compounds are stabilised in the presence of peptides by chaperone proteins such as calreticulin, Erp57, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), and tapasin. The peptide-loading complex is made up of TAP, tapasin, MHC class I, ERp57, and calreticulin (PLC). 

Different proteasomes generate peptides for MHC class-I presentation: Most cells express the 26S proteasome; many immune cells express the immunoproteasome; and thymic epithelial cells express the thymic-specific proteasome. 

Antigen presentation: 
MHC class I molecules on the surface of a single cell offer a readout of the expression level of up to 10,000 proteins. This array is interpreted by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, allowing them to monitor internal activities and identify infection and cancer. 

As time passes, MHC class I complexes at the cell surface may dissolve, allowing the heavy chain to be internalised. When MHC class I molecules reach the endosome, they are transferred to the MHC class II presentation pathway. Some MHC class I molecules can be recycled and present endosomal peptides in a process known as cross-presentation. 

MHC class I polymorphism: 
HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C genes encode human MHC class I molecules (HLA stands for 'Human Leukocyte Antigen,' which is the human analogue of MHC molecules present in most vertebrates). These genes are highly polymorphic, which means that each individual has a distinct collection of HLA alleles. Differential susceptibility to infection and autoimmune diseases may come from the vast diversity of peptides that may bind to MHC class I in different individuals, as a result of these polymorphisms. Furthermore, MHC class I polymorphisms make a perfect tissue match between donor and recipient very impossible and are hence responsible for transplant rejection. 

MHC class II presentation: 
MHC class II molecules are expressed by APCs such as dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, and B cells (as well as mesenchymal stromal cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells in response to IFN stimuli, as well as epithelial cells and enteric glial cells). MHC class II molecules bind to peptides produced from degraded proteins in the endocytic process. MHC class II complexes are made up of - and -chains that are assembled in the ER and are held together by an invariant chain. After that, the process of antigen presentation by MHC class II molecules follows the same pattern as MHC class I presentation. 

MHC class II polymorphism: 
Human MHC class II molecules, like the MHC class I heavy chain, are encoded by three polymorphic genes: HLA-DR, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DP. Different MHC class II alleles can be utilised as genetic markers for a variety of autoimmune diseases, possibly because of the peptides they include. 

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Inflammation

Inflammation is the process by which your body's white blood cells and the chemicals they produce protect you from infection by outside invaders like bacteria and viruses. However, in some disorders, such as arthritis, your body's defence mechanism, or immune system, causes inflammation even when there are no invaders to fight. In autoimmune diseases, your immune system reacts as though normal tissues are infected or otherwise unusual, causing damage.

Inflammation types:
Inflammation can be either acute or chronic in nature (chronic). Acute inflammation resolves in a matter of hours or days. Chronic inflammation can last for months or years after the initial cause has passed. Chronic inflammation is associated to the following conditions:

• Cancer
• Heart disease
• Diabetes
• Asthma
• Alzheimer’s disease

Inflammation and arthritis:
Some types of arthritis are the result of inflammation, such as:

• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Psoriatic arthritis
• Gouty arthritis

Other painful joint and musculoskeletal disorders that aren't caused by inflammation include osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, muscular low back pain, and muscular neck pain.

What are the symptoms of inflammation?
Symptoms of inflammation include:

• Redness
• A swollen joint that may be warm to the touch
• Joint pain
• Joint stiffness
• A joint that doesn’t work as well as it should

Often, you’ll have only a few of these symptoms.

Inflammation may also cause flu-like symptoms including:

• Fever
• Chills
• Fatigue/loss of energy
• Headaches
• Loss of appetite
• Muscle stiffness

What causes inflammation, and what are its effects?
When you have inflammation, substances from your white blood cells enter your blood or tissues to defend you against invaders. This increases blood flow to the site of damage or infection. It can produce flush and warmth. Some of the chemicals cause fluid leakage into your tissues, which causes swelling. This protective process may produce nerve stimulation and pain.

Higher numbers of white blood cells and the things they make inside your joints cause irritation, swelling of the joint lining, and loss of cartilage (cushions at the end of bones) over time.

How are inflammatory diseases diagnosed?
Your doctor will ask about your medical history and do a physical exam, focusing on:

• The pattern of painful joints and whether there are signs of inflammation
• Whether your joints are stiff in the morning
• Any other symptoms
• They’ll also look at the results of X-rays and blood tests for biomarkers such as:
• C-reactive protein (CRP)
• Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Can inflammation affect internal organs?
Inflammation can affect your organs as part of an autoimmune disorder. The symptoms depend on which organs are affected. For example:

• Inflammation of your heart (myocarditis) may cause shortness of breath or fluid build-up.
• Inflammation of the small tubes that take air to your lungs may cause shortness of breath.
• Inflammation of your kidneys (nephritis) may cause high blood pressure or kidney failure.

You might not have pain with an inflammatory disease, because many organs don’t have many pain-sensitive nerves.

Inflammation treatment:
Inflammatory diseases may be treated with drugs, rest, exercise, and surgery to correct joint damage. Your treatment plan will be determined by a number of factors, including the type of disease, your age, the medications you're taking, your overall health, and the severity of your symptoms.

The goals of treatment are to:

• Correct, control, or slow down the disease process
• Avoid or change activities that aggravate pain
• Ease pain through pain medications and anti-inflammatory drugs
• Keep joint movement and muscle strength through physical therapy
• Lower stress on joints by using braces, splints, or canes as needed

Medications:

Many drugs can ease pain, swelling and inflammation. They may also prevent or slow inflammatory disease. Doctors often prescribe more than one. The medications include:

•  Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or naproxen)
• Corticosteroids (such as prednisone)
• Antimalarial medications (such as hydroxychloroquine)
• Other medicines known as disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), including azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, leflunomide, methotrexate, and sulfasalazine
• Biologic drugs such as abatacept, adalimumab, certolizumab, etanercept, infliximab, golimumab, rituximab, and tocilizumab
   

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Translational Immunology

Translational immunology is the process by which researchers apply immunological discoveries and provide practical solutions to human problems. Vaccine development against infectious diseases is one example, as is the creation of novel types of medications to treat inflammatory conditions.

The series' goal is to enhance knowledge and provide updates on current topics in immunology; specifically, the series aims to translate study results and recent findings into clinical practice.

The series, written and edited by leading international scientists, is aimed primarily at graduate-level immunologists, clinicians, and students, as well as individuals working in academic, corporate, or non-profit settings. Its ethical goal is to encourage worldwide benefit sharing of immunological advancements through the publication of foundational, consensus-building content.

The translational immunology series seeks to provide comprehensive coverage of the Network of immunity in infection, malignancy, and autoimmunity (NIIMA), which is one of the primary fields of science without borders in the universal scientific education and research network (USERN). Autoimmunity, allergy, infection and immunity, inborn immunity errors, immunodeficiencies, AIDS, immunopharmacology, transplantation, cancer immunology, immunotherapy, neuroimmunology, vaccination are examples of possible Series Volume topics.

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Cytokines and Chemokines

Cytokines
These are small cell-signalling protein molecules that are secreted by a variety of cells and are a type of signalling molecule that is widely used in intercellular communication.

Cytokines are either proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The term "cytokine" refers to a broad and diverse family of regulators produced throughout the body by embryologically diverse cells. The word has also been applied to immunomodulating agents like interleukins and interferons.

Biochemists disagree over which molecules are cytokines and which are hormones. Anatomic and structural distinctions between the two are diminishing as we understand more about each. Classic protein hormones circulate in nanomolar (10-9) concentrations that rarely differ by more than one order of magnitude. Some cytokines, on the other hand, circulate in picomolar (10-12) concentrations that can rise up to 1,000-fold with trauma or infection.

Cytokines may be differentiated from hormones by their widespread dispersion of cellular sources. Endo/epithelial cells and resident macrophages (many of which are located at the interface with the external environment) are powerful makers of IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-alpha. Classical hormones, like as insulin, are produced by distinct glands (e.g., the pancreas).

Chemokines
This is a group of small cytokines (proteins secreted by cells). Chemotactic cytokines get their name from their ability to induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells.

Cytokines can take the form of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The term "cytokine" refers to a broad and diverse family of regulators produced by embryologically diverse cells throughout the body. Immunomodulatory agents such as interleukins and interferons have also been given this name.

There is disagreement among biochemists over which molecules are cytokines and which are hormones. The anatomic and structural differences between the two are merging as we learn more about each. Traditional protein hormones circulate at nanomolar (10-9) quantities that rarely change by more than one order of magnitude. Some cytokines, on the other hand, circulate in picomolar (10-12) concentrations that can rise 1,000-fold in response to trauma or infection.

Cytokines can be differentiated from hormones by their widespread reach of cellular sources. Endo/epithelial cells and resident macrophages (many of which are located at the interface with the external environment) are potent pro-inflammatory cytokines. Traditional hormones, like as insulin, are produced by distinct glands (e.g., the pancreas).

Key terms:

• Cytokine: Any of various small regulatory proteins that regulate the cells of the immune system.
• Chemokine: Any of various cytokines, produced during inflammation, that organize the leukocytes.
• Chemotaxis: The movement of a cell or an organism in response to a chemical stimulant.

Key points:

• Cytokines and chemokines are important in the production and growth of lymphocytes, and in regulating responses to infection or injury, such as inflammation and wound healing.
• Cytokines are the general category of messenger molecules, while chemokines are a special type of cytokine that directs the migration of white blood cells to infected or damaged tissues.
• A cytokine and a chemokine both use chemical signals to induce changes in other cells, but the latter are specialized to cause cell movement.
   

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Hematopoiesis and Immune System Development

Haematopoiesis is the fusion and development of blood cells that occurs during embryonic development and continues into maturity to generate and replenish the blood system. Cellular blood components are produced by hematopoietic stem cells, which are found largely in the bone marrow, a key site of adult haematopoiesis. The blood system includes more than ten different blood cell types with numerous functions.

Functions: Leukocytes represent many specialized cell types involved in innate and acquired immunity. Erythrocytes deliver O2 and CO2 transport, whereas megakaryocytes create platelets for blood clotting and wound healing.

• Synthesis and development of blood cell
• Leukocytes and erythrocytes
• Development B-cells and T-cells

Synthesis and development of blood cell:
Blood has been described as the "river of life," as it transports numerous substances to various parts of the body. Red blood cells are an important part of the blood. Their job is to carry oxygen to the body's tissues in exchange for carbon dioxide, which they take to the lungs to exhale. The red bone marrow of bones is where red blood cells are formed. Hemocytoblasts are stem cells found in red bone marrow.They are responsible for the formation of all of the components found in blood.

If a stem cell decides to grow into a proerythroblast, it will develop into a new red blood cell. A red blood cell takes roughly two days to develop. Every second, the body produces around two million red blood cells.Blood has both cellular and liquid components. When a blood sample is spun in a centrifuge, the formed elements and fluid matrix of blood can be separated. Blood is made up of around 45% red blood cells, fewer than 1% white blood cells and platelets, and 55% plasma.

Leukocytes and erythrocytes:
RBCs are red because of the presence of haemoglobin, an iron-rich protein that binds with oxygen to produce the colour. Because of its high concentration in the blood, RBC gives it a red colour. Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are round, tiny, and biconcave in shape, but due to their flexibility, they seem bell-shaped while passing through narrow channels. They transport oxygen to the body's tissues. It is critical to have an iron and vitamin-rich diet in order to maintain a healthy RBC count in the body. Anemia is caused by a low RBC count, and frequent symptoms include irregular heartbeat, pale complexion, feeling chilly, weariness, and joint discomfort.

Red blood cells' major role is to carry oxygen from the lungs to tissue in various sections of the body via the blood circulation system. They also carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs, where it is expelled from the body. Because of its bi-concave form, the RBC aids in the exchange of oxygen at a constant rate and over a large surface.

Because they lack haemoglobin, white blood cells are colourless. White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, protect the body from infections by creating antibodies that strengthen the body's defence system against germs and viruses. The circulatory system utilized by these cells is another essential element that helps us distinguish between RBC and WBC. WBC circulates via the circulatory system and is also found in the lymphatic system. Only the cardiovascular circulatory system is used by red blood cells. These cells attack invading bacteria, viruses, and germs, assisting in the fight against infection.

Development B-cells and T-cells:
T and B lymphocytes (T and B Cells) are involved in the acquired or antigen-specific immune response because they are the only cells in the organism that can recognize and respond specifically to each antigenic epitope. B cells have the ability to transform into plasmacytes and are in charge of generating antibodies (Abs). Thus, humoral immunity is dependent on B cells, whereas cell immunity is dependent on T cells. The ontogeny processes for each kind of lymphocyte are covered, along with their basic features, the many subpopulations reported to date, the signalling pathways used for their activation, and their main functions based on the immunological profile that they present.
 

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Hypersensitivity, Asthma, and Allergic Responses

The immune system is crucial for maintaining health and protecting the human body against microbial invasion. This same mechanism, however, can cause exaggerated immunological and inflammatory responses, resulting in severe outcomes known as hypersensitivity reactions. Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV hypersensitivity reactions are the four traditional classifications for hypersensitivity reactions:

• Type I hypersensitivity, commonly known as an immediate reaction, involves the generation of antibodies against the soluble antigen via immunoglobulin E (IgE). As a result, mast cells degranulate and histamine and other inflammatory mediators are released.
• Type II hypersensitivity, often known as cytotoxic reactions, involves IgG and IgM antibodies, which activate the complement system and cause cell damage or lysis.
• Type III hypersensitivity, also known as immune complex reactions, is caused by IgG, IgM, and sometimes IgA antibodies. The buildup of these immunological complexes activates the complement system, leading polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) to chemotaxis and, eventually, tissue damage.
• Type IV hypersensitivity, commonly known as delayed hypersensitivity, is characterised by T-cell-mediated reactions. As a result of cytokine release, T-cells or macrophages become activated, causing tissue damage.

Sell et al. established a more recent taxonomy that accounts for different immune system components and divides the responses into seven parts. The focus of this study, however, will be on the classic type I hypersensitivity reactions.

Atopic disorders, which are exaggerated IgE-mediated immune responses (i.e., allergic: asthma, rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and dermatitis), and allergic diseases, which are immunological responses to foreign allergens, are examples of type I hypersensitivities (i.e., anaphylaxis, urticaria, angioedema, food, and drug allergies). The allergens that cause type I hypersensitivity might be mild (e.g., pollen, mites, foods, medications, etc.) or hazardous (e.g., insect venoms). The response may emerge in many parts of the body and result in events such as:

• Nasal allergic rhinitis or hay fever 
• Ocular allergic conjunctivitis, potentially due to seasonal allergens such as pollen or mold spores 
• Dermatological hives, atopic eczema, or erythema
• Soft tissue angioedema
• Pulmonary reactions, such as allergic asthma or hypoxia
• Systemic reaction, which is a life-threatening medical emergency, and also known as anaphylaxis.

Certain risk factors increase the probability of allergic disorders. Geographical distribution, environmental risks such as pollution or socioeconomic status, genetic susceptibility, or the "hygiene hypothesis" are among these factors. According to the "cleanliness hypothesis," our contemporary society's habits of high hygiene and a lack of early exposure to numerous microorganisms or antigens may result in immune system deficiencies. As a result, the theory proposes that early exposure to a varied variety of microbes and antigens may result in lower overall incidence of allergies, asthma, and other immunological diseases.

When immune system proteins (antibodies) mistakenly identify a harmless substance, such as tree pollen, as an invader, an allergic reaction develops. Antibodies bind to antigens in an attempt to defend your body from the substance.Your immune system's chemicals produced allergy symptoms such as nasal congestion, runny nose, itchy eyes, and skin reactions. This similar response affects the lungs and airways in certain patients, resulting in asthma symptoms.

Are allergies and asthma treated differently?

Most treatments are designed to treat either asthma or allergic rhinitis. But a few treatments help with both conditions. Some examples:

• Leukotriene modifier. This drug can help with both allergic rhinitis and asthma symptoms. This daily medication, known as a leukotriene modifier, aids in the management of immune system chemicals released after an allergic reaction. Montelukast (Singulair) is a leukotriene modifier that can be used to treat asthma as well as allergic rhinitis.
• Anti-allergy injections (immunotherapy). Allergy injections can aid in the asthma treatment by gradually reducing your immune system's response to certain allergy triggers. Immunotherapy is getting little injections of the allergens that cause your symptoms on a regular basis.
• Over time, your immune system builds a tolerance to the allergens, and your allergic symptoms diminish. As a result, asthma symptoms decrease. This treatment usually requires a series of injections over time.
• IgE (anti-immunoglobulin E) therapy. When you have an allergy, your immune system misidentifies a specific chemical as hazardous and stimulate the immune system called IgE against the allergen.
   

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Immunology Education

Immunology education promotes immunology education, knowledge, and research globally; it is a immediate source of immunology information for healthcare professionals, students, and researchers. Immunology education offers resources for teaching and learning immunology, ranging from the basics through advanced immunology and highly specialised focus areas.

Online courses are available through a free registration login. Clinical case studies use real-world experiences of doctors to show diagnostic procedures and treatments, as well as explain illness immunological pathways. Immunology education is maintained up to date and informed with regularly updated news articles on research advances and interviews with top immunologists.

Resources 

• Online courses: Immunology education develops and offers online courses in partnership with the IUIS and other organisations. Before and after immunology courses, these courses teach and support participants and students all around the world. Knowledge frameworks are offered so that learners may fully participate and get the most out of real-world courses. Users are educated on all fronts through lectures, appropriate materials such as papers, and multiple-choice assessments.
• Over 50 clinical case studies: Real-life clinical cases are utilized to examine an immunological concept, resulting in a greater knowledge of the human immune system. These include the following components: patient presentation, history, differential diagnosis, examination, investigations, discussion, treatment, and a final outcome. There are questions and answers to assist you in evaluating your understanding.
• Basics of the immune system: The anatomy and inner workings of the immune system are described in detail to provide an understanding of how immunity works.
• Advanced immunology: Topics that take a deeper understanding of immunological concepts and systems in the human body. 
• Special focus area: Immunological information on diseases such as TB, HIV and malaria as well as cancer and tumours and autoimmune diseases. 
• Treatments & diagnostics: Information on HIV and TB diagnosis and specific guidelines for treatment. Information for immunological testing and clinical practice plus laboratory assay information, such as ELISAs, PCRs and flow cytometry. 
• Breaking news: Keep up to date with news in the world of immunological research with summaries of recent papers and publications. 
• COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 breaking news: Keep up to date with easy-to-read summaries of publications and pre-print papers in COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 research. Get updates every weekday in this fast-evolving area of research. 
• Interviews: Video, voice recordings and written interviews from some of the top immunologists in the world who give insight into their research, diseases and how to get ahead in the world of immunology. 
• Ambassadors: Our ambassadors are innovative young immunologists who work to spread the word about our website in their home countries and institutions. We have built a global network of young scientists. Ambassadors also contribute to our breaking news, interviews and online courses. 
• Ambassador sci-talks: Our partnership with keystone symposia showcases the research our ambassadors conduct. Immunology education ambassadors are invited to conduct visual recordings of their research for the virtual keystone symposia: science on demand platform. 
   

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Innate Immune Responses and Host Defense

The immune system is comprised of two types of responses: innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific). Innate immunity is present by default and is activated immediately following infection.

Non-specific immunity is so named because the protective response is the same regardless of the source of the infection. The adaptive immune system, in contrast hand, is slower, responds more specifically, and creates immunological memory.

Inflammation is the primary component of innate immunity. In order to limit the spread of infection and promote wound healing, injured cells produce cytokines and other pro-inflammatory substances (such as bradykinin, histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, and serotonin). These pro-inflammatory mediators dilate blood vessels and attract phagocytes.

Neutrophils subsequently enhance the immune response by attracting leukocytes and lymphocytes. The Complement cascade is activated, which improves the innate response. Opsonization is a significant consequence of complement cascade activation. Pathogenic antigen opsonization marks invasive bacteria for ingestion and destruction by phagocytes.

The innate response includes a variety of cell types, but it is particularly reliant on basophils and mast cells (inflammation) as well as neutrophils and macrophages (phagocytosis). The innate immune system also stimulates the adaptive immune response by antigen presentation, which is an essential role.

Key points:

• Acute phase proteins
• Allergy, asthma and inflammation
• Co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules
• Complement and coagulation
• Dendritic cells
• Granulocytes
• Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs)
• Interferons
• Lysosomal enzymes
• Monocytes/macrophages
• Pattern recognition receptors

The first line of protection against invading viruses is the innate immune response. They must also initiate certain adaptive immune responses. Innate immune responses rely on the body's ability to recognise pathogen conserved features that are not present in the uninfected host. Many types of molecules on microbial surfaces, as well as certain viruses' double-stranded RNA, fall within this category.
Toll-like receptor proteins, which are present in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates, recognise many of these pathogen-specific compounds. Microbial surface molecules also activate complement, a group of blood proteins that work together to break microorganism membrane, target microorganisms for phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils, and create an inflammatory response in vertebrates.
 

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Vaccines and Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy relates to both non-specific immune stimulation, such as BCG and cytokines, and immune modulators, such as check point inhibitor antibodies and drugs such as the thalidomide-derived IMiDs, such as revlimid/lenalidomide.

Vaccines are agents that induce an active response to a tumour antigen, such as MAGE or NY-ESO. As such, these vaccines are therapeutic cancer vaccines rather than prophylactic anti-viral vaccines that target HBV and HPV to reduce the incidence of liver and cervical cancer.

The other major vaccine development strategy has been to include it in more advanced disease when first line treatment has failed, that has resulted in the first approved vaccine, namely Sipuleucel-T, for advanced prostate cancer. A comprehensive review of cancer vaccine use indicates that they have often been used alone and/or in late-stage disease.

Over the last few years, it has become evident that tumours learn to defend themselves against even the most appropriate vaccine-induced immune response by establishing various shields, such as FAS-L, CD55, and CD95, as well as deploying immune suppressive factors, such as TGF- and IL-10, which can also recruit T-regulatory cells and promote the expansion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells.This strongly suggests that the antigen-induced immune response requires assistance, either in the form of enhanced immune response, which can be obtained by including cytokines such as Interleukin-2 (as well as IL-7, 12, 15, 21), or tumour activity must be greatly reduced by tumour cell kill, either with radiotherapy or chemotherapy, and that specific treatments to downregulate T-regulatory myeloid derived suppressor cells be considered.

It has been proved that Interleukin-2, even at low doses, can improve the effects of even non-specific vaccines, and that some drugs, such as cyclophosphamide, which can inhibit T-regulatory activity even at low doses, and gemcitabine, which is a strong inhibitor of myeloid-derived suppressor cells, can also enhance vaccine effectiveness.
 

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Technological Innovations in Immunology

Immunology research is changing and evolving as new tools and methodologies supplement and expedite traditional procedures. Researchers are increasingly turning to multiomic single cell and spatial characterization technology to delve deeper into the complex molecular and cellular networks and immune system responses, and translate discoveries into actionable insights for the treatment of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

There are 202 peer-reviewed articles in immunology and immuno-oncology that use 10x genomics products. This number is rising year after year. Immunity is our most popular scientific publication, with cell a close second. We are honoured to see an increasing number of clients publishing research in such high impact journals, and we are enthusiastic to see how multiomic single cell technology will speed crucial immunology and human health breakthroughs.

Researchers are using single cell and spatial technology to advance our knowledge of the heterogeneity and developmental progression of immune cells in a wide range of tissues and biological systems, whether they are investigating macrophage infiltration in tiny murine synovial joints or deconstructing the immune landscape of human kidney tissue distressed by lupus nephritis.They are revealing the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the adaptive and innate immune response, enabling various and novel applications, thanks to their capacity to completely characterise immune cells. 

Single cell and spatial solutions for immunology research:

 Information about the immune system are researchers gaining from 10x genomics solutions, with the combined power of single cell and spatial technology, researchers can:

• Examine the cellular context of the adaptive immune response and immune repertoires of hundreds to tens of thousands of T and B cells.
• Uncover cell-to-cell gene expression variability and identify rare cell types from complex biological samples.
• Discover cellular heterogeneity stemming from epigenetic variability and understand the regulation of genes to better define cell state and types for lineage tracing and biomarker discovery.
• Capture spatial gene expression in heterogeneous tissue samples, observing tissue morphology and immune infiltration.

Researchers continue to develop innovative applications of these tools and drive discovery in critical areas of immunology research, including:

• Vaccines and antibody discovery: See how researchers have developed an unbiased, high-throughput method to screen the antibody repertoire of single B cells for accelerated antibody discovery.
• Infectious Disease: Learn how scientists discovered epithelial–immune cellular crosstalk that may localize macrophages and neutrophils to regions susceptible to infection.
• Cellular and molecular mechanisms of immunology: Find out how scientists identified two successive stages of innate lymphoid cell development and the molecular events that drive cell fate commitment.
• Immuno-oncology: Explore how cancer researchers discovered that expanded CD8+ T cell clones may have been recruited from outside the tumor microenvironment following immune checkpoint blockade therapy.
   

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Microbial, Parasitic, and Fungal Immunology

Microbial immunology is the study of the molecular mechanisms used by microorganisms to cause disease in humans and animals. Bacterial, protozoan, parasitic, and viral pathogens have developed a wide range of tools to proliferate in the host and obtain nutrients, causing resistance and disease.

Microbiologists and immunologists use all of the tools of modern sub-nuclear science inherited characteristics, destructive nature components, sedate collaborative efforts, natural science, and biophysics to understand the beautiful forms cast-off by infectious diseases. Knowing how microorganisms cause disease is usually the first step in the development of novel antibodies and therapies, and its expansion includes all aspects of the interrelationship between powerful authorities and their hosts.

• Cellular responses to bacterial, parasitic, viral and fungal pathogens
• Immunopathogenesis of bacterial, parasitic, viral and fungal infection
• Innate immunity against bacterial, parasitic, viral and fungal pathogens
• Mechanisms of host invasion, evasion, and resistance of virus (including HIV)
• Helminth parasites
• Apoptosis & viral infection
• Hepatitis viruses
• B-glucan & anti-fungal immunity prion

It is widely known that host defence mechanisms impact the presentation and severity of fungal infections, therefore clinical presentations of the disease are dependent on a patient's immunological response. For example, the immune system of humans influences whether type of illness develops after exposure to the widespread fungus aspergillus fumigatus or if candida albicans transitions from commensalism to infection. The host's defence systems against fungus are varied, ranging from primitive protective mechanisms present early in the development of complex organisms ('innate immunity') to complex adaptive mechanisms induced specifically during infection and disease ('adaptive immunity').

Infectious diseases harm over 14 million of people each year. Pathogens that cause these diseases include external bacteria, intracellular bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungus, and prions. Bacteria are single-celled, tiny prokaryotic creatures. Intracellular bacteria must penetrate host cells to multiply, whereas extracellular bacteria do not. Viruses are acellular, sub microscopic particles with a protein coat around an RNA or DNA genome.

Infectious myositis can be caused by a wide range of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses. Because the musculature is relatively resistant to infection, infectious myositis is infrequent. In situations of bacterial myositis, for example, triggering events such as trauma, surgery, or the presence of foreign bodies or devitalized tissue are frequently present. Bacterial causes of myositis are classified as pyomyositis, psoas abscess, staphylococcus aureus myositis, group A streptococcal necrotizing myositis, group B streptococcal myositis, clostridial gas gangrene, and non-clostridial myositis.
 

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